Linking the objects

Almost all programs, except for the simplest, are built up from different pieces. We are going to examine such a situation in more detail.

Here is a general program for tabulating a function (source code in “tabulate.f90”):

program tabulate
    use user_functions

    implicit none
    real    :: x, xbegin, xend
    integer :: i, steps

    write(*,*) 'Please enter the range (begin, end) and the number of steps:'
    read(*,*)  xbegin, xend, steps

    do i = 0, steps
        x = xbegin + i * (xend - xbegin) / steps
        write(*,'(2f10.4)') x, f(x)
    end do
end program tabulate

Note the use statement — this will be where we define the function f.

We want to make the program general, so keep the specific source code — the implementation of the function f — separated from the general source code. There are several ways to achieve this, but one is to put it in a different source file. We can give the general program to a user and they provide a specific source code.

Assume for the sake of the example that the function is implemented in a source file “functions.f90” as:

module user_functions
    implicit none
contains

real function f( x )
    real, intent(in) :: x
    f = x - x**2 + sin(x)
end function f

end module user_functions

To build the program with this specific function, we need to compile two source files and combine them via the link step into one executable program. Because the program “tabulate” depends on the module “function”, we need to compile the source file containing our module first. A sequence of commands to do this is:

$ gfortran -c functions.f90
$ gfortran tabulate.f90 functions.o

The first step compiles the module, resulting in an object file “functions.o” and a module intermediate file, “user_functions.mod”. This module file contains all the information the compiler needs to determine that the function f is defined in this module and what its interface is. This information is important: it enables the compiler to check that you call the function in the right way. It might be that you made a mistake and called the function with two arguments instead of one. If the compiler does not know anything about the function’s interface, then it cannot check anything.

The second step invokes the compiler in such a way that:

• it compiles the file “tabulate.f90” (using the module file);

• it invokes the linker to combine the object files tabulate.o and functions.o into an executable program — with the default name “a.out” or “a.exe” (if you want a different name, use the option “-o”).

What you do not see in general is that the linker also adds a number of extra files in this link step, the run-time libraries. These run-time libraries contain all the “standard” stuff — low-level routines that do the input and output to screen, the sin function and much more.

If you want to see the gory details, add the option “-v”. This instructs the compiler to report all the steps that are in detail.

The end result, the executable program, contains the compiled source code and various auxiliary routines that make it work. It also contains references to so-called dynamic run-time libraries (in Windows: DLLs, in Linux: shared objects or shared libraries). Without these run-time libraries the program will not start.